Gondwana 120 million years ago shows the location and geology of Australia/Antarctica with relation to the other continents (Linol et al 2014)
Antarctica Exploration
This research examines the structural geology (using surface topography and geography) of Antarctica for Antarctica Exploration. It compares the structures found with the only geology plan I have found in the public domain data on Google.
Why is there very limited information on the geology and structure of Antarctica in public domain research? University or CSIRO/Geoscience Australia type research data is locked away to protect these institutions’ academic advantage and copyright. Company data is hidden from competitors to keep strategic competitive advantage, as I well know having worked for WMC for nearly 30 years. This stifles researchers working outside those closed systems.
This is a poor situation for the broad advancement of science and dissemination of knowledge in general. It has virtually stopped independent research and the type of research I have attempted to do for the last 30 years!
How can this situation be changed? I am doing my little bit by making my research freely available on my website Geotreks.com — https://www.geotreks.com.au/, my LinkedIn post page https://www.linkedin.com/in/bob-watchorn-97b95624/detail/recent-activity/posts/ and my public lectures – 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l0HdKnHomeA, and https://ausimm.com/news/bob-watchorn-tech-talk/ and https://www.geotreks.com.au/work/giant-ring-structures/ausimm-innovation/.
Despite this lack of good public information the broad-scale structural geology of Antarctica and Australia will be combined (over the next few papers) to reconstruct the Australia/Antarctica continent and determine if it existed as a single continent in the Hadean 4 billion years ago.
Figure 1. Antarctica Exploration, Australia and Antarctica from Google Earth showing icebound Antarctica
Australia completely separated from Antarctica about 30 million years ago. However – have they been joined since the Hadean?
Figure 2. Gondwana 120 million years ago shows the location and geology of Australia/Antarctica with relation to the other continents (Linol et al 2014).
This supercontinent (including North America and Eurasia) will be gradually reconstructed using surface and lithospheric structural geology from my papers pasted onto the continents. The correlation of structures should indicate the Hadean geology of the continents.
An interesting question, for how long were they joined prior to the formation of Gondwana 130 million years ago? My working hypothesis, based on research of lithospheric evidence, suggests that they were joined at the formation of the lithosphere 4 billion years ago.
Current tectonic plate theory suggests they only joined 130 million years ago. If there are continuous giant ring structures binding the two continents together then that definitely implies they were both formed during the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) (Taylor Redd 2017) 4 billion years ago.
Current tectonic plate theory, based on surface geochronology, paleoclimate, paleogeography and paleomagnetism suggests the continents have been forever splitting and recombining (Algol 2018. 4.2 billion years of continental drift video, – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UgRHZ5jDPUU ).
This theory is based on the crust of the Earth being thin and plastic in the Hadean. In fact the Hadean 4.2 billion years ago is shown as an earth covering ocean. There is no recognition of the lithosphere.
I suggest, based on my extensive research, that this is a very wrong assumption. More discussion on this in the separate section on Plate Tectonics.
Where do India, North America and Eurasia fit in? This will be the aim of the next few papers.
Antarctica and Australia broad geology compared
Figure 3. Antarctica’s geography shows that much of Antarctica is below water when the ice melts.
It is suggested that Australia and Antarctica were joined from 4 billion years ago (Hadean) until 30 million years ago and acted as a single buoyant continent. Archipelago waves (my term) formed around the leading edge of this continent as it was pushed around the Earth’s surface.
Figure 4. Geographic plan showing Antarctica’s interpreted linear structures. Enlarge to see structures in Yilgarn inset.
Strong linear structures are observed in EW, ENE, WNW, NNW and NS directions, when using the alignment of Antarctica to Australia as North (see arrow). The structures correlate with structures projected from Australia’s Yilgarn craton (Watchorn YW #9 2019 https://www.geotreks.com.au/work/giant-ring-structures/yilgarn-craton-tomography/).
These identical structures of have been independently observed on the two continents. The correlation of the NNW structures to known structures (Kalgoorlie-Wiluna mineralised structure for example) in Western Australia (inset) enhances their recognition as real structures.
Figure 5. Antarctica Geographic plan showing Antarctica’s ring structures.
The inset is of the Yilgarn giant ring structures researched (Watchorn YW #9 2019 https://www.geotreks.com.au/work/giant-ring-structures/yilgarn-craton-tomography/). The Yilgarn abutted Antarctica on the NW roughly in the position shown.
The lower 3,000 km diameter semi-circle is the Trans-Antarctic Mountains belt. Are they following a reactivated, underlying, pre-existing lithospheric ring structure (palimpsest) or is this arc just coincidence?
The large 2,000 km diameter ring in the top half, defined by broken mountain ranges on the NW and SE quadrants, encompasses the SW quadrant of the Antarctic Hadean craton (using Australia as north).
Figure 6. Antarctica Topographic and bathymetric map without its ice sheets, assuming constant sea levels and no post glacial rebound (Heinrich 2008).
This figure has more detailed topography than the previous figure. This ice-free figure was enhanced using my Eagle Eye method to determine structures seen on the land surface. Pre-existing structures will have already been physically enhanced by glaciation of lithologies of varying hardness and fracturing.
Figure 7. Antarctica enhanced Topographic and bathymetric map. Refer back to this figure to see structures in the next few figures.
This figure is strongly structurally enhanced. The figure shows that the SW of Antarctica (central top with north to right) forms around a huge disjointed ring structure.
Figure 8. Antarctica Topographic and bathymetric plan with interpreted linear structures.
This image shows giant linear structures transecting Antarctica. Antarctica is unusual in that it is almost entirely covered with ice so this may be one of the first figures to show these giant structures under the ice.
The two margins of the rift (blue), at the top of the image, are clearly seen cutting across the continent. This correlation with documented geographic features suggests the interpreted structures are real.
Figure 9. Antarctica Topographic and bathymetric map with ring structure interpretation.
The large arc transecting both continental Antarctica (top) and the more recent Archipelago would have a diameter of > 10,000 km if it forms part of a ring structure. Where is the centre of that ring now situated?
How did this ring form? These large rings crossing seemingly younger geology are an enigma. I have researched many of them in Australia, North America, Eurasia, Africa, India, China and South America. If they are younger there is no surface evidence of their very young formation (either by impact or any other means). The conclusion is that these arcs are palimpsests or ghost rings activated from relict ring structures in the lithosphere beneath the younger mobile surface geology.
Figure 10. Antarctica and Australia’s linear structures.
These plans, which are located approximately in their Gondwana position, show good correlation of linear structures. The division (yellow line) of the two continents into Hadean (west) and more recent (east) correlates very well and is more than a coincidental alignment after separation of 3.8 Billion years! This is independent corroboration of the various methods used to define these structures.
The Antarctica method used my Eagle Eye enhancement and the right image used Tim O’Driscoll’s laborious analogue method of enhancement (O’Driscoll 1980, O’Driscoll 1986 and Campbell 1997).
This is vindication of Tim’s methodology from the 1960s to 1990s which seemed like smoke and mirrors to many geoscientists and has invoked very robust discussion – even up to the present!
Figure 11. Indicative geology plan of Antarctica Australia – enlarged from the Gondwana plan (Linol et al 2014, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-29482-2_13).
This plan shows the indicative geology of Antarctica. There is a central core of Precambrian rocks, in both Antarctica and Australia, is surrounded and partially overlain by younger geology. The division (yellow line) of the two continents into Hadean (west with North to right) and more recent (east) correlates very well. The Australian Archaean geology correlates seamlessly with the Yilgarn and Gawler cratons trending into the Antarctica Archaean. Once again this correlation is too exact to be coincidence.
Figure 12. This plan shows the surface linear structures interpreted from the geography and topography datasets projected onto the geology plan of Antarctica.
Figure 13. This plan shows the surface ring structures interpreted from the geography and topography datasets projected onto the geology plan of Antarctica.
Figure 14. This busy plan shows the major surface linear and ring structures from the geography and topography datasets projected onto the geology plan of Antarctica.
Plan showing all surface structures. These structures do not correlate to the surface geology. Rather, the surface geology appears to follow some of these structures suggesting the structures occurred first and underlie and affect the present crus
Antarctica Exploration, Discussion on Plate Tectonics.
Paleomagnetics, comparative surface geology, geochronology and paleoclimate data is currently used to reconstruct previous continental masses.
However, these are a subjective, surface crust only, basis for reconstruction.
Reconstructing continents using detailed lithospheric structure has not been used as until now there was no detailed lithospheric interpretation to determine which continents joined together, or their timing.
Deep seated geological structures in the lithosphere can be structurally dated by analysing their method of formation. For instance perfectly circular, overprinting giant ring structures of >2000 km diameter can only have been formed by impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) which occurred between 4.1 and 3.8 billion years ago. There have only been sporadic giant impacts since the LHB as is shown by the relatively un-impacted mares on the moon which formed 4.1 – 3.7 billion years ago.
These huge rings, if they can be connected, suggest which continents were joined together when they formed 4 billion years ago. If these structures (when reconstructed) are continuous between continents it is reasonable to deduce that these continents formed together. These rings are comparatively undeformed which also suggests the Hadean lithospheric supercontinents were rigid at formation, have remained rigid and are still undeformed.
Current tectonic plate theory, based only on surface geochronology, paleoclimate and paleomagnetism suggests the continents have been forever deforming splitting and recombining (REF movie).
The current theory is based on the crust of the Earth being thin and plastic in the Hadean. Based on my extensive seismic tomographic plan and section research this is a very wrong assumption! The current crust didn’t exist in the Hadean but the > 300 km deep lithosphere did!
The research I have done on the relationship of basement lithosphere structures in other continents show that they bear little relationship to the crustal geology. This paper on the structures in Antarctica shows that its lithospheric structure also bears little relationship to the surface geology.
It is suggested the crust moves over, and around, the lithosphere and accretes and segments independently of the lithosphere. It thus has different geochronology and palaeomagnetism to the lithosphere. The observed constant lithospheric structure is the most reliable basis by which to reconstruct the Hadean paleocontinents.
The current plate tectonics theory (and geoscience in general) does not recognise the importance, or existence, of a 300-600 km thickness of rigid lithosphere built up during the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB). This was the crust in the Hadean (Taylor Redd 2017) 4 billion years ago!
This is an important, perhaps not new, working hypothesis that up until now could not be proved. Now that the detailed structure of the lithosphere can be seen many changes will have to be made to our earth models to replace the current hypothesis of a thin Hadean crust for one of a thick precursor Hadean crust.
This continuous lithosphere, probably only started separating into continents at the commencement of plate tectonics perhaps 2.9 – 2.0 billion years ago (Bercovici et al 2015).
It is suggested Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia were part of these original Hadean Earth Mares. Were they originally joined and floated as a supercontinent from the Hadean until Gondwana broke up? Where do India, North America and Eurasia fit in? This will be the aim of the next few papers.
My research suggests that these Hadean supercontinents, that are now buried 60 – 200 km below the crust, existed before the commencement of Plate tectonics.
The Lithosphere under each of the continents of Australia, North America, Fenno-Russia, Africa, South America, China and Antarctica is continuous. Thus it is suggested that these above continents have survived intact from the Hadean until the present.
The starting point, the sequence of travel direction and constitution of the continents in plate tectonics as it is now taught needs re-evaluating.
Research, thoughts on current research practices. Why is there very limited information on the geology and structure of Antarctica in public domain research? I’m sure information is locked away in the closed domain University and pay for knowledge domains but this is of little benefit to private researchers.
University or CSIRO/Geoscience Australia type research data is locked (have to pay for it) away to protect these institutions’ academic advantage and copyright. Company data is hidden from competitors to keep strategic competitive advantage, as I well know having worked for WMC for 30 years. This is a poor situation for the broad advancement of science and dissemination of knowledge in general. It has virtually stopped the type of research I am doing for the last 40 years!
How can this situation be changed? I am doing my little bit by making my research freely available on my website Geotreks.com — https://www.geotreks.com.au/, my LinkedIn post page https://www.linkedin.com/in/bob-watchorn-97b95624/detail/recent-activity/posts/ and my public lectures – 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l0HdKnHomeA, and https://ausimm.com/news/bob-watchorn-tech-talk/ and https://www.geotreks.com.au/work/giant-ring-structures/ausimm-innovation/
Implementing real change in geoscience research. Certain areas of geoscience research appear to be stagnating and primitive compared to other professions.
The mining industry as a whole has rightly been accused of being a dinosaur and is reluctant to accept outside ideas. For example automation and imaging in the mining industry is 30 years behind the automotive and medical industries.
May I dare to suggest that certain areas of geoscience research are even worse?
The medical industry can get superfine 3D tomographic images from MRI, Cat and ultrasound scans, and other data, that they use to do complicated remote keyhole surgery. However, geoscience (apart from my coarse images compared to medical images) cannot get detailed images from seismic tomography, radar, aeromagnetics, Landsat, gravity detailed geochemical, topography data which could be treated in a similar manner to medical data.
This data is essentially the same format data as the MRI tomographic scans used quickly and efficiently every day by millions of doctors. What is wrong? Am I wrong?
We, as explorationists, are badly missing out on good data because of this lack of collaboration between different industries.
It would be a great step forward for all geoscience if we adapted, say, medical technological software to use to get images of the earth which are just as detailed as the images doctors get of their patient’s interiors! It’s that simple, the starting data is very similar, in particular to seismic tomography.
The first geophysicist to work out how to adapt this software will be light years ahead of colleagues! That is an incentive for you young innovative, brave geophysicists to advance your careers and our profession!
It could be as simple as applying the medical imaging software to your data without alteration to get fabulous images as I have done, in a very minor way, with structural recognition software. Who will be the first to crack it?
Read in more detail in the attached file. Share it – follow this research!.
Exploration of Antarctica using geography and topography.pdf
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